Earth
Science Regents Review
for
June 14, 2013 @ 8:30 am
The
following is a list of the important concepts that you will need to know for
the upcoming Regents exam in Earth Science. Use this list as a review guide.
Vocabulary
is underlined and bold. If you don’t know what a word
means LOOK IT UP!
(Select the word then right-click and search)
Unit One: Observation,
Measurement, and Graphing and Change
*
Observations use the senses. Inferences are interpretations
based on observations.
Anything
in the future or the distant past is an inference.
*
A uniform substance always
has the same density.
*
As pressure increases, density increases.
*
Most substances are most dense in the solid state, least dense in the gaseous
state.
*
Water is most dense (smallest volume)
at 3.98°C,
when it is a liquid.
*
Water expands when it freezes.
*
As temperature increases, density decreases.
*
Direct Relationship = both variables increase or decrease.
*
Inverse Relationship = one variable increases while the other decreases.
*
Scalar values: magnitude
(size) only.
*
Vector values: magnitude
& direction (wind & magnetic fields)
*
Most environmental changes are cyclic.
*
Change occurs at interfaces
and always involves energy transfers.
*
Dynamic Equilibrium = changes
are occurring, but are balanced, so overall
conditions
stay the same.
Unit Two: Astronomy
*
Universe: everything. Began
with big bang approximately
12 billion years ago
*
Evidence for big bang: Expansion (red
shift) & cosmic background radiation.
*
Galaxies: collections of billions
of stars. Our galaxy - the Milky Way
*
Stars: powered by hydrogen fusion. Hydrogen is the
fuel. Helium is the product.
*
Star color depends on temp. Hot = blue. Red = cool. Sun = yellow (medium)
*
Planets: non-luminous. Orbit
stars. The closer to the star, the faster the orbital velocity
and
the shorter the period of revolution.
*
Moons: orbit planets.
*
Luminosity: Brightness
independent of distance.
*
Meteor, asteroid: Space
rocks.
*
Comet: Ice, dust, & rock
in orbit around sun
*
Nebula: cloud of gas &
dust
*
Supernova: exploding star.
*
Orbits are ellipses. Know
formula.
*
Keppler’s law of ‘equal swept area in
equal time
Unit Three: Measuring the Earth
*
The true shape of the Earth is an oblate
spheroid.
*
The best model of the Earth's shape is a sphere.
*
To determine the earth's circumference, we need the altitude of the sun at two
locations and the distance between those locations. (Eratosthenes)
*
The altitude of Polaris equals your latitude.(Northern
Hemisphere)
*
Latitude lines go east - west.
(Equator = 0° Lat.,
Poles = 90° Lat.)
*
Maximum Latitude is 90°.
* Longitude is based on
observations of the sun (solar noon).
*
Longitude lines go north - south. (Prime
Meridian = 0° Long. - through
Greenwich,
England)
*
Maximum Longitude is 180°.
*
Atmosphere = gasses, Hydrosphere = water, Lithosphere = rock (crust)
*
Isolines connect points of
equal value.(Isotherms, Isobars,
Contour Lines)
*
Closer isolines mean a steeper gradient.
Unit Four: Earth Motions
*
The Earth rotates west to
east at a rate of 15° per
hour (one rotation in 24 hours).
*
The Earth revolves
counterclockwise around the sun (one revolution in 365 1/4 days or
about
1° per
day).
*
All celestial objects appear to move to the west.
*
Geocentric = Earth centered /
Heliocentric = sun centered.
*
Evidence that the Earth rotates: Foucault
Pendulum - appears to change direction.
*
Coriolis Effect - deflects to
the right in the northern hemisphere.
*
The
sun is never, ever, ever directly overhead in New York State !
*
Summer Solstice - June 21 -
16 hours of daylight - sun rises north of due
east
- sun is directly overhead at the Tropic
of Cancer, 23 1/2 degrees north latitude.
*
Winter Solstice - December 21 - 8 hours of daylight - sun rises south of due
east,
sun
is directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn, 23 1/2 degrees south latitude.
*
Equinoxes - March 21 (vernal)
and September 23 (autumnal) - 12 hours of daylight -
sun
rises due east - sun is directly overhead at the equator.
*
Earth is closer to the sun in winter - December. (perihelion)
*
The equator always has 12 hours of daylight.
*
The closer a planet is to the sun, the faster it orbits.
*
Planets appear to go backwards (retrograde
motion) as the Earth passes them in space.
*
Cycle of moon phases = 29.5 days. One lunar revolution around Earth = 27 1/3
days
Units Five and Six: Energy and
Insolation
*
Kinetic Energy = energy of
motion, increases with velocity.
*
Potential Energy = stored
energy, increases with height (energy of position).
*
Good absorbers of energy are
also good radiators of energy.
*
Dark, rough surfaces absorb more energy than light, smooth surfaces.
*
Conduction = energy
transferred from molecule to molecule (solid, liquid, and gas) by collisions.
*
Convection = energy is
transferred by moving molecules (liquid and gas) due to density differences.
*
Radiation = energy is
transferred by waves, needs no medium (vacuum, space).
*
Energy moves from Source to Sink.
*
Specific Heat = energy needed
to raise 1 gram of a substance 1° Celsius.
*
Water has the highest specific heat.
*
calorie = specific heat of
water.
*
Temperature does not change
during a phase change. (Latent Heat)
*
Know the water phase change graph.
Unit Seven: Weather
*
Bodies of water moderate temperatures.
*
Atmosphere is heated by infrared
energy re-radiated from the
Earth.
*
Atmosphere gets moisture from
evapotranspiration.
*
The more moisture in the air the slower the evaporation rate.
*
Warm air is less dense, Moist air is less dense.
* Convection = air movement due
to differences in density (and pressure).
*
Wind blows from high pressure to low pressure. (Note: Coriolis effect)
*
Winds are named for the direction they come from.
*
As altitude increases: pressure decreases, temperature decreases.
*
Adiabatic Temperature Change
= results from a change in pressure - direct relationship
*
Expanding gasses cool, compressing gasses warm.
*
Warm air can hold more water than cold air.
*
Condensation = water vapor
turning into liquid water.
*
Relative Humidity = % of
moisture in the air compared to the air’s capacity.
Warm
air = greater capacity, cool air = smaller capacity.
*
Dew Point = temperature at
which air becomes saturated (R.H. = 100%).
*
The smaller the difference between air temp. and Dew Point = the greater the
chance of precipitation.
*
Know how to find Dew Point and Relative Humidity.
*
Condensation Nuclei =
surfaces on which condensation can occur (dust, pollen).
*
Cloud = collection of water
droplets too small to fall.
*
Precipitation = any form of
water that falls from the atmosphere.
*
Snow - only precipitation
that does not begin as a liquid.
*
Sublimation: solid to vapor
or vapor to solid without going through the liquid phase.
*
Air masses are classified
based on their source region.
*
High pressure systems = cool and dry, Low pressure systems = warm and moist.
*
Weather in the US moves from SW to NE or W to E (storm track)
*
Cold fronts are faster than warm fronts.
*
Wind direction around Lows (counterclockwise, towards the center) and
Highs (clockwise
away from the center) in Northern Hemisphere.
*
Know how to read Station Models,
isotherms and isobars on a weather map.
Unit Eight: Groundwater
*
Infiltration depends on permeability, permeability
depends on porosity.
* Porosity is independent of
particle size. (unless particles are mixed!!!)
*
As particle size increases, permeability increases, capillarity decreases.
*
Ep (potential evapotranspiration)
depends on temperature.
*
Climates are determined by
P/Ep ratio.
*
Aquifer: layer of porous rock
or soil
*
Water table: Interface
between zones of aeration
& saturation.
*
Evapotranspiration:
Combination of evaporation &
transpiration.
Units Nine and Ten: Weathering,
Erosion and Deposition
*
Weathering = breakdown of
rock
*
Rate of weathering depends on climate, particles size, and mineral composition.
*
Smaller particles have more surface
area.(weather faster)
*
Mature soils have several identifiable layers (horizons).
*
Most sediments are "transported" sediments.
*
Some soils are residual:
formed in place from the bedrock below.
*
Sediments have characteristics that identify their transporting agent.
*
Gravity is the driving force
behind most erosion.
*
Running water is the most dominant agent
of erosion on Earth.
*
Stream velocity depends on slope and discharge and shape of channel.
*
Streams transport sediments in solution,
suspension, and rolling (saltation).
*
In a straight section of stream, velocity is greatest in the middle just under
the surface.
*
In a curved section of stream, velocity is greatest on the outside just under
the surface.
*
Streams: sediments are sorted,
round and smooth, and form V-shaped
valleys.
*
Glaciers: sediments are unsorted, striated (scratched), and form U-shaped valleys.
*
Sorting = separation of particles during deposition based on size & density
& shape.
*
The largest, roundest, densest particles are deposited first.
Unit Eleven: The Rock Cycle
*
Mineral physical characteristics depend on their internal arrangement of atoms.
*
Physical properties of minerals = color,
streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, crystal form
*
90% of lithosphere is
composed of only 12 minerals.
*
Sedimentary Rocks - can be clastic (particles), chemical (evaporite), or organic (shells) found in strata, flat layers - only type
of rock that contains fossils
*
Igneous Rocks: intrusive (plutonic) = below
surface, cooled slowly = large crystals
extrusive (volcanic) = above
surface, cooled quickly = small (or no) crystals
*
Large crystals = coarse grain
(texture). Small = fine grain.
No crystals = glassy
*
Metamorphic Rocks: changed
from heat and pressure, can be Regional
or Contact.
May
show banding, distortion of
structure, mineral alignment
*
A rock's characteristics indicate how (and where) it was formed.
*
Sedimentary rocks are found as a thin
veneer over large areas.
*
Non-sedimentary rocks are usually found in areas of earthquake and volcanic
activity.
*
Know the Igneous, Sedimentary, and Igneous Rock Schemes in the Reference
Tables!
*
Know how to use the rock cycle chart in the reference tables!
Unit Twelve: Crustal Change
*
Earthquake Zones = Volcano Zones (both occur in specific zones = plate
boundaries)
*
Boundaries: Convergent, Divergent,
Transform
*
Convection cells in the
earth's mantle (Athenosphere)
move the plates.
*
Crust created at mid ocean ridges
(sea floor spreading)
*
Crust is being destroyed at ocean trenches
(subduction).
*
Fault = zone of weakness in
crust
*
Focus = point of origin of an
earthquake
*
Epicenter = point above focus
on surface of earth.
*
Energy from earthquake is released in Seismic
waves (recorded in a seismogram
by
a seismograph)
*
p-waves: faster than s-waves
- travel through solids, liquids, and gasses
*
s-waves: slower - travel only
through solids
*
We need info from three seismograph locations to find the epicenter.
*
Seismic data provides a model for the inside of the earth.
* Moho = bottom of crust
(interface) where density suddenly changes
*
Shadow zone = zone where no P
or S waves received from a particular quake because
waves
are refracted.
*
Continental crust: thick -
granite. Sea floor crust: thin - basalt
*
Density, temperature, and pressure all increase with depth.
*
Geosynclines = areas where
crust appears to sink under weight of sediment.
* Isostasy = earth's crust in equilibrium
*
Know how to use the Travel Time Chart in the Reference Tables!
Unit Thirteen: Geologic History
*
Original Horizontality = rock
strata are deposited in horizontal layers.
*
Evidence of crustal movement: tilting,
folding, faulting
*
Principle of Superposition =
profiles are built from the bottom up. (bottom = older)
*
Intrusions and faults are
relatively younger than the rock they are in.
*
Unconformity = buried
erosional surface
*
Index fossils and Volcanic
ash layers are good time markers.
*
Good time marker fossil: species existed briefly but was widespread.
*
Radioactive decay = breakdown
of isotope into a more stable
element.
*
The rate of radioactive decay is constant. (unaffected by heat and pressure)
*
Half life = time period in
which one half of the remaining amount of isotope decays.
*
Uranium-235 is used to date
really old rocks.
*
Carbon-14 is used to date
recent organic material.
*
Know how to use the Geologic Timescale in the Reference Tables!
Unit Fourteen: Landscapes
*
Landscape characteristics = topography
= relief (elevation)
*
Landscape Regions are
classified based on hill, slopes,
stream patterns, and soil associations.
*
There are three types of landscape regions: mountains, plateaus, and plains (lowlands).
*
Know how to use the NY State maps in the Reference Tables !
*
Uplift = constructive force, leveling (erosion)= destructive
force.
*
Uplift and leveling may be in dynamic equilibrium but one is usually dominant.
*
Climate can affect landscape,
landscape can affect climate.
*
Wet climate = rounded features (NYS). Arid
climate = angular features (American SW)
*
Type of bedrock (resistance)
can affect landscape.
MOST IMPORTANT:
There
are 16 pages of earth science reference table. You must be thoroughly
familiar with what’s in them so that when you are asked a question, you
will know to look for the answer. If you don’t know that the answer is in the
tables, you won’t look for it! You must also know how to use the graphs and charts in the tables.
For video reviews - (c) Hommock Middle School…
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If you studied you should do well! 06-14-2013@ 9:00 am
